A short history of brucellosis - Nicoletti P. College of Veterinary Medicine, PO Box 110880, Gainesville, FL 32610-0880, USA. Vet Microbiol. 2002 Dec 20;90(1-4):5-9.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6TD6-46Y588G-2&_coverDate=12%2F20%2F2002&_alid=134487357&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_qd=1&_cdi=5190&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=055e35b3edb1f1ff76880c9e0e6d5ee3


Progress in understanding brucellosis - Cutler S, Whatmore A. Vet Rec. 2003 Nov 22;153(21):641-2.


More attention warranted on Brucella abortus in animals - Kakoma I, Oluoch AO, Baek BK, Rahman MS, Matsuda K. J Am Vet Med Assoc. 2003 Feb 1;222(3):284.



Brucellosis vaccines: past, present and future - Schurig GG, Sriranganathan N, Corbel MJ. Center for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Diseases, Virginia-Maryland Regional College of Veterinary Medicine, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA. Vet Microbiol. 2002 Dec 20;90(1-4):479-96.
The first effective Brucella vaccine was based on live Brucella abortus strain 19, a laboratory-derived strain attenuated by an unknown process during subculture. This induces reasonable protection against B. abortus, but at the expense of persistent serological responses. A similar problem occurs with the B. melitensis Rev.1 strain that is still the most effective vaccine against caprine and ovine brucellosis. Vaccines based on killed cells of virulent strains administered with adjuvant induced significant protection but also unacceptable levels of antibodies interfering with diagnostic tests. Attempts were made to circumvent this problem by using a live rough strain B. abortus 45/20, but this reverted to virulence in vivo. Use of killed cells of this strain in adjuvant met with moderate success but batch to batch variation in reactogenicity and agglutinogenicity limited application. This problem has been overcome by the development of the rifampicin-resistant mutant B. abortus RB51 strain. This strain has proved safe and effective in the field against bovine brucellosis and exhibits negligible interference with diagnostic serology. Attempts are being made to develop defined rough mutant vaccine strains that would be more effective against B. melitensis and B. suis. Various studies have examined cell-free native and recombinant proteins as candidate protective antigens, with or without adjuvants. Limited success has been obtained with these or with DNA vaccines encoding known protective antigens in experimental models and further work is indicated. Copyright 2002 Elsevier Science B.V.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6TD6-473DYTB-N&_coverDate=12%2F20%2F2002&_alid=134486270&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_qd=1&_cdi=5190&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=4a350297282b84537daf492a1c2651b5


The Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) brucellosis eradication program in the United States - Ragan VE; Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service. USDA, APHIS, Veterinary Services, 4700 River Road, Unit 43, Riverdale, MD 20737, USA. Vet Microbiol. 2002 Dec 20;90(1-4):11-8.
Efforts to eradicate brucellosis caused by Brucella abortus in the United States began in 1934 as part of an economic recovery program to reduce the cattle population because of the Great Depression and concurrent severe drought conditions. A number of states saw this as an opportunity to reduce the level of brucellosis, which was the most significant livestock disease problem in the US at the time. In 1934 and 1935, the reactor rate in adult cattle tested was 11.5%. In 1954, the magnitude of the brucellosis problem in the United States in terms of economics to the cattle industry and human health prompted Congress to appropriate funds for a comprehensive national effort to eradicate brucellosis. The brucellosis eradication program was designed as a cooperative effort between the federal government, the states, and livestock producers. As the science and technology of brucellosis has developed over the years through research and experience, the eradication program has been modified many times. As of 31 December 2000, there were no affected cattle herds in the United States. This was the first time in the history of the brucellosis program that the United States had no known brucellosis affected herds. However, brucellosis has a variable, sometimes quite lengthy incubation period, so it is expected that additional affected herds will be disclosed. It is likely that additional affected herds will be disclosed before brucellosis is finally eradicated from cattle. Animal health officials remain prepared to aggressively pursue any newly disclosed affected herds to eliminate the disease as quickly as possible. The State-Federal Brucellosis Eradication Program has made tremendous progress since its inception. In an eradication program, it is critically important to recognize that, despite all the tools that are available to eliminate the disease, an effective surveillance system is the critical first step that must be in place in order to be successful. It is imperative, not only to be able to find the disease and eliminate it, but to find it before it spreads to susceptible herds. When brucellosis can be identified, contained, and eliminated before spread occurs, eradication can be achieved. Copyright 2002 Elsevier Science B.V.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6TD6-473DYTB-3&_coverDate=12%2F20%2F2002&_alid=134486703&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_qd=1&_cdi=5190&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=96a8f428f2c37d3571edc65c94250406



Brucella vaccines in wildlife - Davis DS, Elzer PH. Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA. Vet Microbiol. 2002 Dec 20;90(1-4):533-44.
Brucellosis has been known to exist in populations of wildlife since the early part of the 20th century. At the beginning of this century in the US, Brucella abortus is a problem in elk and bison in the Greater Yellowstone Area, B. suis is prevalent in millions of feral swine in most of the southern states, and caribou/reindeer in Alaska are infected with B. suis biovar 4. Brucellosis has been virtually eliminated in domestic livestock in the US after decades of expensive governmental disease prevention, control and eradication programs. Now the most likely source of transmission of brucellosis to humans, and the risk of reintroduction of brucellosis into livestock is from infected populations of free-ranging wildlife. Brucellosis was eradicated from livestock through a combination of testing, vaccination, and removal of infected animals. The use of vaccines to control brucellosis in populations of wildlife and therefore reducing the risk of transmission to humans and livestock has been proposed in several instances. This manuscript reviews research on the use of Brucella vaccines in species of wildlife with emphasis on safety and efficacy. Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, Texas A&M University
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6TD6-473DYTB-P&_coverDate=12%2F20%2F2002&_alid=134487207&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_qd=1&_cdi=5190&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=9280fa15839036263fa7afed5cd8302b



Protection against infection and abortion induced by virulent challenge exposure after oral vaccination of cattle with Brucella abortus strain RB51 - Elzer PH, Enright FM, Colby L, Hagius SD, Walker JV, Fatemi MB, Kopec JD, Beal VC Jr, Schurig GG. Department of Veterinary Science, Louisiana State University Agricultural Center, Baton Rouge 70803, USA. Am J Vet Res. 1998 Dec;59(12):1575-8.
OBJECTIVES: To determine efficacy of orally administered Brucella abortus vaccine strain RB51 against virulent B abortus challenge exposure in cattle as a model for vaccination of wild ungulates. ANIMALS: 20 mixed-breed beef cattle obtained from a brucellosis-free herd. PROCEDURE: Sexually mature, Brucella-negative beef heifers were vaccinated by mixing > 10' viable RB51 organisms or diluent with their feed. Heifers were fed individually and consumed their entire ration. Each heifer received approximately 3 X 10' colony-forming units (CFU). Six weeks after oral vaccination, heifers were pasture-bred to brucellosis-free bulls. At approximately 186 days' gestation, heifers were challenge exposed conjunctively with 107 CFU of virulent B abortus strain 2308. RESULTS: Vaccination with the rough variant of B abortus RB51 did not stimulate antibodies against the O-polysaccharide (OPS) of B abortus. After challenge exposure and parturition, strain 2308 was recovered from 80% of controls and only 20% of vaccinates. Only 30% of the vaccinates delivered dead, premature, or weak calves, whereas 70% of the controls had dead or weak calves. CONCLUSIONS: Cattle vaccinated orally with the rough variant of B abortus strain RB51 develop significant (P < 0.05) protection against abortion and colonization and do not produce OPS-specific antibodies. Clinical Relevance-Results encourage further investigation into use of strain RB51 to vaccinate wild ungulates (elk and bison) orally.



Costs of veterinary services and vaccines/drugs used for prevention and treatment of diseases in 86 Colorado cow-calf operations participating in the National Animal Health Monitoring System (1986-1988) - Salman MD, King ME, Odde KG, Mortimer RG. Department of Environmental Health, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins 80523. J Am Vet Med Assoc. 1991 May 15;198(10):1739-44.
Eighty-six cow-calf operations involved in the Colorado National Animal Health Monitoring System were monitored for a 12-month period, and data were collected on the incidence, prevention, and costs of disease. The costs of veterinary services and vaccines/drugs used in the treatment and prevention of disease conditions in these beef herds were determined and expressed on a per cow basis. Beef producers in this study spent an average of $2.04 ($0 to $29.88) per cow annually on veterinary services for treatment of disease conditions. The cost of veterinary services was a relatively small percentage (5.4%) of the total mean cost of disease incidence. The reproductive tract disease class was the most costly class in terms of veterinary services for disease treatment ($0.99/cow). Dystocia was the disease condition with the largest veterinary treatment cost. The total mean annual cost of drugs used in the treatment of disease conditions was $1.22/cow. The enteric, miscellaneous, and respiratory tract disease classes had similar mean drug costs for disease treatment and ranged from $0.31 to $0.39/cow. The total mean annual cost of veterinary services for administration of preventive measures in these herds was $1.85/cow ($0 to $12.03). Pregnancy examination, breeding soundness examination in bulls, brucellosis vaccination, pulmonary arterial pressure test, and campylobacteriosis vaccination accounted for over 90% of the money spent for preventive veterinary services. Approximately 60% of the total mean annual disease prevention cost was attributed to the purchase of vaccines/drugs ($6.59/cow).



Brucella Abortus Strain RB51: A New Brucellosis Vaccine for Cattle – Stevens, Mark G, Olsen, Steven C, Palmer, Mitchell V, and Norman F Cheville
Vaccinating cattle with Brucella abortus strain 19 and removing animals with brucellosis from vaccinated herds has been used for over 50 years as program to eradicate brucellosis from cattle in the United States. However, the program has failed to eradicate brucellosis and has cost between 4 to 5 billion dollars during the past 30 years. Tests have revealed that a new vaccine, B. abortus strain RB51, is better than the strain 19 vaccine because cattle vaccinated with strain RB51 do not produce antibodies which are detected in diagnostic tests for brucellosis. Therefore, cattle having brucellosis can be more easily identified and the eradication of brucellosis from cattle can be more rapidly achieved by using the strain RB51 vaccine. The vaccine is also safe for use in cattle and effectively prevents brucellosis and abortions that are caused by infection with B. abortus. The strain RB51 vaccine has recently been approved as an official brucellosis vaccine for cattle by the United States Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS). This article summaries results from a 4-year Agriculture Research Service investigation of the safety and efficacy of the strain RB51 vaccine that were important for vaccine approval by APHIS.
http://www.nal.usda.gov/ttic/tektran/data/000007/16/0000071611.html



Applications:

Brucellosis: (Brucella melitensis, abortus, suis, and canis)
Brucellosis is an infectious disease caused by the bacteria of the genus Brucella. These bacteria are primarily passed among animals, and they cause disease in many different vertebrates. Various Brucella species affect sheep, goats, cattle, deer, elk, pigs, dogs, and several other animals. Humans become infected by coming in contact with animals or animal products that are contaminated with these bacteria. In humans brucellosis can cause a range of symptoms that are similar to the flu and may include fever, sweats, headaches, back pains, and physical weakness. Sever infections of the central nervous systems or lining of the heart may occur. Brucellosis cab also cause long-lasting or chronic symptoms that include recurrent fevers, joint pain, and fatigue.
http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dbmd/diseaseinfo/brucellosis_g.htm


Brucellosis: Cattle and Bison
Brucellosis has caused devastating losses to farmers in the United States over the last century. It has cost the Federal Government, the States, and the livestock industry billions of dollars in direct losses and the cost of efforts to eliminate the disease. Brucellosis causes abortions, infertility, and lowered milk production in cattle and bison and is transmissible to humans as undulant fever. In people, the disease causes severe flu like symptoms that can last for months or years. Treatment in humans is not always successful. Moreover, treatment is not successful in animals.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture’s (USDA) Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) has been working cooperatively with the livestock industries and State animal health authorities to eradicate brucellosis from the United States. As of March 1, 2002, 48 States have achieved brucellosis-free status with no known infection.
The only known focus of Brucella abortus infection left in the nation is in bison and elk in the Greater Yellowstone Area (GYA). With respect to this area, APHIS is cooperating with State and Federal agencies to implement a bison management plan, in order to provide for a free ranging bison herd and to prevent exposure of cattle to potentially infected wildlife.
http://www.aphis.usda.gov/vs/nahps/brucellosis/cattle.htm


Brucellosis Eradication:
This publication—Brucellosis Eradication: Uniform Methods and Rules (UM&R)— includes the minimum standards of the Cooperative State–Federal Brucellosis Eradication
Program. This UM&R contains minimum standards for certifying herds, classifying
States and areas, and detecting, controlling, and eradicating brucellosis, as well as minimum brucellosis requirements for the intrastate and interstate movement of cattle and bison.
This UM&R is divided into two chapters that are further subdivided into parts. Chapter
1 deals with general provisions for cattle and/or bison. Part I of chapter 1 contains definitions. Part II covers procedures used in the Cooperative State–Federal Brucellosis
Eradication Program, and part III explains participation in area plans.
Chapter 2 deals with all of the classifications of herds and areas for bovine brucellosis:
Certified Brucellosis-Free Herds (part I), Class Free Status (part II), Class A Status (part III), and Class B Status (part IV).
The provisions of this UM&R were approved by the U.S. Department of Agriculture
(USDA), Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS), Veterinary Services
(VS), with the advice and recommendations of the United States Animal Health
Association. This UM&R may be amended in the future by replacing pages or by adding new pages.
http://www.aphis.usda.gov/oa/pubs/bruumr.pdf


Cattle Brucellosis Eradication in Texas: Close, But, Not Yet - Texas Animal Health Commission
Animal health officials were disappointed, but not surprised in September, when they detected a cattle herd infected with brucellosis in Henderson County, breaking a 13-
month stretch during which no newly infected herds were detected in Texas. Texas
and Missouri are the only states in the nation not free of this bacterial disease, which
is detected through testing of blood, milk or tissue from cattle. Although some infected
animals exhibit no signs of disease, brucellosis can cause cows to abort, deliver weak
calves or produce less milk.
“We are closing in on the last infected herds in Texas, and after months of not finding
infection, we were hopeful we might have finally eradicated the disease,” commented
Dr. Max Coats, deputy director for Animal Health Programs at the Texas Animal
Health Commission (TAHC), the state’s livestock health regulatory agency. “With more
than 153,000 cattle herds in Texas, finding the last infected herds is like looking for
the proverbial ‘needle in the haystack.’ We still may find a few more infected herds in
Texas before we join the ranks of the other brucellosis-free states in this national disease
eradication program.”
http://www.tahc.state.tx.us/news/pr/2003/2003Oct_Brucellosis_Erad.pdf


Brucellosis persists in Texas cattle
Oct 7, 2003 (CIDRAP News) – Brucellosis was detected in a Texas cattle herd recently, ending a 13-month stretch with no new Texas cases and postponing the day when the state can be declared free of the once widespread disease, according to the Texas Animal Health Commission (TAHC).
Texas and Missouri are the only states that still have cases of brucellosis, which can cause cows to abort, deliver weak calves, or produce less milk, the TAHC said in a news release last week.
Dr. Max Coats, deputy director of animal health programs at the TAHC, said officials had had hopes that the disease was eradicated before it was found in a herd in Henderson County. "With more than 153,000 cattle herds in Texas, finding the last infected herds is like looking for the proverbial needle in the haystack," Coats said. "We still may find a few more infected herds in Texas before we join the ranks of the other brucellosis-free states in this national disease eradication program."
http://www.cidrap.umn.edu/cidrap/content/biosecurity/ag-biosec/news/oct0703brucellosis.html


Brucellosis Found In Wyoming Cattle Herd - Maria A. Schulz, December 12, 2003
A herd of cows in Wyoming's Upper Green River Basin is infected with brucellosis, a bacterial disease that hasn't been seen in domestic farm animals since April 2002, authorities said on December 5.
The herd of 400 cows is near Boulder in Sublette County, about 100 miles south of Yellowstone National Park and next to Muddy Creek, a state feeding ground where infected elk have been known to graze.
http://www.anc.org/farm/farm_article.cfm?identifier=2003_1212_cows


Brucellosis Outbreak In Montana Cattle Herd - Robert Cohen, 12-8-3
The front page of my Sunday newspaper travel section (The North Jersey Record, December 7, 2003) includes a feature story on winter vacations in Montana and Wyoming. The headline:
"Yellowstone Presents an Ultimate Survival Test"
Indeed.
Headline writers often stretch truth. In this case, the headline contains a Stephen King-like omen.
A horrible disease has come to Montana, and the dairy and cattle industry is now under quarantine. You have not heard this one yet, have you? The media powers to be don't want you to learn of the following story. It might hurt those who advertise so that you might drink body fluids from diseased animals.
A herd of Montana cattle is infected with brucellosis. Four hundred cows are expected to be slaughtered this week.
http://www.rense.com/general45/outbreak.htm


RB51: A New Brucellosis Vaccine - UCD Vet News California Cattleman, SEPTEMBER 1996
The brucellosis eradication program has made significant progress toward reaching the desired goal of the United States being free of cattle brucellosis by 1998. California has only one herd (dairy) under quarantine as of September 1996. Nationwide there are only fifty-one quarantined herds, and the only quarantined dairy herd is in California. Thirty-six states are now classified as brucellosis "Free". We have obviously made substantial progress in eliminating brucellosis in cattle.
One difficulty in the eradication program is the number of "false positive" test results found in some vaccinated animals. The term "false positive" refers to animals that are positive on a laboratory test but do not have the disease, in this case, brucellosis. Cattle vaccinated with the Brucella Strain 19 products may become "false positives" due to vaccinating heifers after they become sexually mature (usually those more than 10 months of age), or by accidentally vaccinating calves twice.